Dysphoria
Dysphoria (from Greek: δύσφορος (dysphoros), δυσ-, difficult, and φέρειν, to bear) is a profound state of unease or dissatisfaction. It is the opposite of euphoria. In a psychiatric context, dysphoria may accompany depression, anxiety, or agitation.
In psychiatry
Intense states of distress and unease increase the risk of suicide, as well as being unpleasant in themselves. Relieving dysphoria is therefore a priority of psychiatric treatment. One may treat underlying causes such as depression or bipolar disorder as well as the dysphoric symptoms themselves.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) categorizes specific dysphoria in the obsessive–compulsive spectrum.
Dissatisfaction with being able-bodied can be diagnosed as body integrity dysphoria in the ICD-11.[1]
Gender dysphoria
Gender dysphoria is discomfort, unhappiness, or distress due to one's assigned sex. The current edition (DSM-5) of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders uses the term "gender dysphoria" where it previously referred to "gender identity disorder", making it clear that they no longer consider the gender identity to be disordered, but rather the emotional state of distress which results from the gender identity.[2]
Related conditions
The following conditions may include dysphoria as a symptom:
- Major depressive disorder (unipolar) and dysthymia
- Bipolar disorder[3] and cyclothymia
- Borderline personality disorder[4]
- Premenstrual syndrome
- Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
- Dysphoric milk ejection reflex
- Stress
- Adjustment disorder with depressed mood
- Anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder
- Dysphoric rumination[5]
- Dissociative disorders such as dissociative identity disorder, dissociative amnesia, and depersonalization disorder.
- Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
- Mixed anxiety-depressive disorder
- Gender dysphoria
- Personality disorders such as borderline personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, and antisocial personality disorder
- Substance withdrawal
- Body dysmorphic disorder
- Akathisia
- Hypoglycemia
- Schizophrenia
- Sexual dysfunction
- Body integrity dysphoria
- Insomnia[6]
- Chronic pain[7]
Drug-induced (dysphoriants)
Some drugs can produce dysphoria, including κ-opioid receptor agonists like salvinorin A (the active constituent of the hallucinogenic plant Salvia divinorum), butorphanol, and pentazocine,[8] μ-opioid receptor antagonists such as naltrexone and nalmefene,[9] and antipsychotics like haloperidol and chlorpromazine (via blockade of dopamine receptors),[10] among others. Depressogenic and/or anxiogenic drugs may also be associated with dysphoria.
In popular culture
Against Me! released the album Transgender Dysphoria Blues in which the lead singer Laura Jane Grace shares her experiences of gender dysphoria.[11]
Shane Neilson released a book of poetry entitled Dysphoria (The Porcupine's Quill, 2017) in which he explores the experience of dysphoria.
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